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Create your own custom C# types with classes and objects.

Basic Classes and Objects

At this point we have built fields to associate data with a class and properties to control the getting and setting of each field. As it is now, any code outside of the `Forest` class can "sneak past" our properties by directly accessing the field:

```cs
f.Age = 32; // using property
f.age = -1; // using field
```

The second line avoids the property's validation by directly accessing the field.
We can fix this by using the _access modifiers_ `public` and `private`:
- `public` &mdash; a public member can be accessed by any class
- `private` &mdash; a private member can only be accessed by code in the same class

For simplicity, we've been adding `public` to every member so far. That allows code to access the members from the `Main()` method, which doesn't belong to the `Forest` class. When we switch a field from `public` to `private` it will no longer be accessible from `Main()`, although code inside the `Forest` class &mdash; like properties &mdash; can still access it. 

Access modifiers can be applied to all members of a class, including fields, properties, and the rest of the members covered in this lesson.

Remember _encapsulation_? `public` and `private` are necessary to encapsulate our classes. Think of it like "defensive coding": you are protecting the inner mechanisms of a class with `private` so that other code can't break your class. You only expose what you want to be `public`.

For example, since a class' properties define how other programs get and set its fields, it's good practice to make fields private and properties public.

C# encourages encapsulation by defaulting class members to `private` and classes to `public`.


Public vs. Private

As of now, a program can plant any value in a `Forest` field. For example, if we had an `area` field of type `int`, we could set it to `0`, `40`, or `-1249`. Can we have a forest of -1249 area? We need a way to define what values are valid and disallow those that are not. C# provides a tool for that: _properties_.

Properties are another type of class member. Each property is like a spokesperson for a field: it controls the access (getting and setting) to that field. We can use this to validate values before they are set to a field. A property is made up of two methods: 
- a `get()` method, or getter: called when the property is accessed
- a `set()` method, or setter: called when the property is assigned a value

This shows a basic `Area` property without validation:

```cs
public int area;
public int Area
{
  get { return area; }
  set { area = value; }
}
```

The `Area` property is associated with the `area` field. It's common to name a property with the title-cased version of its field's name, e.g. `age` and `Age`, `name` and `Name`. 

The `set()` method above uses the keyword `value`, which represents the value we assign to the property. 
Back in **Program.cs**, when we access the `Area` property, the `get()` and `set()` methods are called:

```cs
Forest f = new Forest();
f.Area = -1; // set() is called
Console.WriteLine(f.Area); // get() is called; prints -1
```

In the above example, when `set()` is called, the `value` variable is -1, so `area` is set to -1.

Here's the same property with validation in the `set()` method. If we try to set `Area` to a negative value, it will be changed to `0`. 

```cs
public int Area
{
  get { return area; }
  set 
  { 
    if (value < 0) { area = 0; }
    else { area = value; }
  }
}
```
 
In **Program.cs**:

```cs
Forest f = new Forest();
// set() is called
f.Area = -1; 
// get() is called; prints 0
Console.WriteLine(f.Area);
```

Properties

With data types like `int`, `string`, and `bool` we can represent basic data and perform basic operations:

```cs
int count = 32;
count++;
```

What if we want to represent something more complex &mdash; something in the real world?

Say we are writing a program to manage nature reserves and we need to track forests. A forest has a certain number of trees, it has a name, it can grow, it can burn. Representing many forests with basic data types would mean tracking tons of separate variables and methods. 

Instead, we can define our own custom `Forest` data type and use it like any other data type in our program. This process of bundling related data and methods into a type is called _encapsulation_, and it makes code easier to organize and reuse.

In C#, a custom data type is defined with a _class_, and each instance of this type is an _object_. This lesson will teach you how to:
- Define a class
- Add members, like properties and methods, to a class
- Customize access to those members using `public` and `private`
- Create objects from a class

In your coding adventures you may come across the term _struct_. While similar to a class it has a few differences, but we won't be covering those in this lesson. 

If you do find yourself in need of a struct, you can [refer to Microsoft's explanation](https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/dotnet/csharp/programming-guide/classes-and-structs/structs). Structs are easy to learn after you understand classes in this lesson.

Let's get started!


Lightbulb class with isOn and watts properties and turnOn method. Microphone with color and isAnalog properties and record method. Animal with color and age properties and speak method. Date with month and year properties and toString method.

Introduction to Classes

We need to associate different pieces of data, like a size and name, to each `Forest` object. In C#, these pieces of data are called _fields_. Fields are one type of class _member_, which is the general term for the building blocks of a class.

Create fields like this:

```cs
class Forest {
  public string name;
  public int trees;
}
```

This might look similar to defining a variable. It is! Each field is a variable and it will have a different value for each object. 

With the code above, we haven't set the value of either field, so each has a default value. In this case `string`s default to `null`, `int`s to `0`, and `bool`s to `false`. You can find the default values for more types in [Microsoft's default values table](https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/dotnet/csharp/language-reference/keywords/default-values-table).

It is common practice to name fields using all lowercase (`name` instead of `Name`). This makes fields easy to recognize later on!

Don't worry about `public` yet: it's explained later in this lesson.

Once we create a `Forest` instance, we can access and edit each field with dot notation:

```cs
Forest f = new Forest();
f.name = "Amazon";
Console.WriteLine(f.name); // Prints "Amazon"

Forest f2 = new Forest();
f2.name = "Congo";
Console.WriteLine(f2.name); // Prints "Congo"
```

Each instance has a `name` field, but the value may differ across instances.


Fields

Previously we used properties for field validation. By applying `public` and `private`, we can also use properties to control access to fields. 

Recall our imaginary `Area` property. Say we want programs to get the value of the property, but we don't want programs to set the value of the property. Then we either:
1. don't include a `set()` method, or
2. make the `set()` method private.

This shows approach 1 &mdash; don't include a `set()`:

```cs
public string Area
{
  get { return area; }
}
```

We can still get `Area`, but if we try to set `Area` we get an error:

```
error CS0200: Property or indexer 'Forest.Area' cannot be assigned to (it is read-only)
```
 
This shows approach 2 &mdash; make `set()` private:

```cs
public int Area
{
  get { return area; }
  private set { area = value; }  
}
```

We can still get `Area`, but if we try to set `Area` in `Main()` we get an error:

```
error CS0272: The property or indexer 'Forest.Area' cannot be used in this context because the set accessor is inaccessible
```
 
Notice that in approach 1 we get an error for setting `Area` anywhere. In approach 2 we only get an error for setting `Area` outside of the `Forest` class. Generally we prefer approach 2 because it allows other `Forest` methods to set `Area`.


Get-Only Properties

C# provides built-in data types, like `string`: each instance of the `string` type has its own values and functionality.

```cs
string phrase = "zoinks!";
Console.WriteLine(phrase.Length);
Console.WriteLine(phrase.IndexOf("k"));
``` 

In this case `phrase` is an _instance_ of the `string` type. Every `string` has a `Length` property and `IndexOf()` method, but the resulting values are different for each instance.

A _class_ represents a custom data type. In C#, the class defines the kinds of information and methods included in a custom type.

You can then make _instances_ of that class (above, `phrase` was an instance of `string`). There may be many instances of the same class, all with unique values.

To begin defining a class, C# uses this structure:

```cs
class Forest {
}
```

The code for a class is usually put into a file of its own, named with the name of the class. In this case it's **Forest.cs**. This keeps our code organized and easy to debug.

In other parts of code, like `Main()` in **Program.cs**, we can use the class. We make instances, or _objects_, of the `Forest` class with the `new` keyword:

```cs
Forest f = new Forest();
```

We could say `f` is an instance of the `Forest` class, or `f` is of type `Forest`.


The process of creating an instance is called _instantiation_. Today we _instantiate_ a class; yesterday they _instantiated_ a class, and so on.


Making Classes

In the last exercise we assigned the `area` field in the constructor:
 

```cs
class Forest
{
  public int Area
  { /* property omitted */ }
 
  public Forest(int area)
  {
    Area = area;
  }
}
```

The parameter for the constructor `area` looks a lot like the old field `area` and the new property `Area`. It's good to be explicit when writing code so that there is no room for misinterpretation. We can refer to the current instance of a class with the `this` keyword. 

```cs
class Forest
{
  public int Area
  { /* property omitted */ }
 
  public Forest(int area)
  {
    this.Area = area;
  }
}
```

`this.Area = area` means "when this constructor is used to make a new instance, use the argument `area` to set the value of this new instance's `Area` field". 

We would call it the same way:

```cs
Forest f = new Forest(400);
```

`f.Area` now equals 400.

The word `this` might seem frustratingly vague. Think back to the "class is to instance as blueprint is to house" analogy. The class/blueprint has to use the generic `this` because the class/blueprint is going to be reused for every instance/house.


this

The third type of member in classes is _methods_. This lesson assumes that you are already familiar with methods, so the syntax should look familiar. 

In the past you learned that methods are a useful way to organize chunks of code to perform a task. But most methods belong to a class (even the ones you have written!), so methods are also used to define how an instance of a class behaves. You can think of them as the "actions" that an object can perform.

This code defines a method `IncreaseArea()` that changes the value of the `Area` property:

```cs
class Forest {
  public int Area
  { /* property body omitted */  }
  public int IncreaseArea(int growth)
  {
    Area = Area + growth;
    return Area;
  }
}
```

You would call the method like so:

```cs
Forest f = new Forest();
int result = f.IncreaseArea(2);
Console.WriteLine(result); // Prints 2
```


Methods

In each of the examples so far, we created a new `Forest` object and set the property values one by one. It would be nice if we could write a method that's run every time an object is created to set those values at once. 

C# has a special type of method, called a _constructor_, that does just that. It looks like a method, but there is no return type listed and the method name is the name of its enclosing class:

```cs
class Forest 
{
  public Forest()
  {
  }
}
```

We can add code in the constructor to set values to fields:

```cs
class Forest
{
  public int Area;
 
  public Forest(int area)
  {
    Area = area;
  }
}
```

 
This constructor method is used whenever we instantiate an object with the `new` keyword:

```cs
 // Constructor is called here
Forest f = new Forest(400);
```

But we've been instantiating new objects all day! Why did it work before we defined a constructor?

If no constructor is defined in a class, one is automatically created for us. It takes no parameters, so it's called a _parameterless constructor_. That's why we have been able to instantiate new objects without errors:

```cs 
Forest f = new Forest();
```


Constructors

Congrats! You've finished a lot of content and some of the most important concepts in C#. When someone asks you, "How do I make a custom data type in C#?" you can talk all about it! In this lesson, you learned how to:
- Define a _class_
- Instantiate an _object_ using `new`
- Define _fields_, the pieces of data for each class
- Define _properties_, the spokespeople for each field
- Define _automatic properties_, the shorthand for making properties
- Define _methods_, the actions a class can take
- Define _constructors_, the special methods called when a class is instantiated
- Overload _constructors_ and reuse code with `this`
- Control access to class members using `public` and `private`


Review

Just like other methods, constructors can be overloaded. For example, we may want to define an additional constructor that takes one argument:
 
```cs
public Forest(int area, string country)
{ 
  this.Area = area;
  this.Country = country;
 }

public Forest(int area)
{ 
  this.Area = area;
  this.Country = "Unknown";
}
```

 
The first constructor provides values for both fields, and the second gives a default value when the country is not provided.
Now you can create a `Forest` instance in two ways:

```cs
Forest f = new Forest(800, "Hungary");
Forest f2 = new Forest(400);
```

Notice how we've written duplicate code for our second constructor: `this.Area = area;`. Later on, if we need to adjust the constructor, we'll need to find every copy of the code and make the exact same change. That means more work and chances for errors. 

We have two options to resolve this. In either case we will remove the duplicated code:

1. Use default arguments. This is useful if you are using C# 4.0 or later (which is fairly common) and the only difference between constructors is default values.

```cs
public Forest(int area, string country = "Unknown")
{
  this.Area = area;
  this.Country = country;
}
```

2\. Use `: this()`, which refers to another constructor in the same class. This is useful for old C# programs (before 4.0) and when your second constructor has additional functionality. This example has an additional functionality of announcing the default value.

```cs
public Forest(int area, string country)
{ 
  this.Area = area;
  this.Country = country;
}

public Forest(int area) : this(area, "Unknown")
{ 
  Console.WriteLine("Country property not specified. Value defaulted to 'Unknown'.");
}
```
 
Remember that `this.Area` refers to the current instance of a class. When we use `this()` like a method, it refers to another constructor in the current class. In this example, the second constructor calls `this()` &mdash; which refers to the first `Forest()` constructor &mdash; AND it prints information to the console. 


Overloading Constructors

It might have felt tedious to write the same getter and setter for the `Name` and `Trees` properties. C# has a solution for that! 
The basic getter and setter pattern is so common that there is a short-hand called an _automatic property_. As a reminder, here's the basic pattern for an imaginary size property:

```cs
public string size;
public string Size
{
  get { return size; }
  set { size = value; }
}
```

This pattern can be written as an _automatic property_:

```cs
public string Size
{ get; set; }
```

In this form, you don't have to write out the `get()` and `set()` methods, and you don't have to define a `size` field at all! A hidden field is defined in the background for us. All we have to worry about is the `Size` property.
